Napoleon and the French Revolution

The Directory (1795-1799)

New Government
- Property-Based Elections
- Legislature chose 5 Directors
  - Share executive power

Compulsory Military Service
Resolves economic crisis
- By 1799, financial system stabilized
Suppressed popular violence: only high revolution

After death of Maximilian Robespierre, French Revolution enters a new phase.
Unicameral government: the Directory (1795-99)
- End universal male suffrage.
- Reaction against he radicalism of the previous year.
Institutes compulsory military service.
- End of all that democracy in the military.
Resolves the economic crisis.
- Declares partial bankruptcy.
- By 1799, the financial system stabilized.
Militarization of French society:
- General conscription every year.
  - National military service became regular for men.
  - Helps tie men to the nation.
  - Creates a national army.
  - Directory army becomes very successful and will go from defensive to offensive.
    - Will Create sister republics in its image.
  - Not very popular but will rely on army to maintain order.

Enter Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821)

Corsican

Toulon Campaign (Aug. - Dec. 1793)

Italian Campaign (1795-1797)

Treaty of Campo Formio (1797)

Painting of Napoleon Bonapart during the Italian Campaign

Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821)
- Born in Corsica, a French territory, to a minor noble family.
- Military genius, especially in artillery.
- Rose to prominence during the French Revolution.
- Key campaigns:
  - Toulon Campaign (1793): Successfully recaptured Toulon from Royalists and British forces.
    - 1793 he was in charge of artillery in Toulon
    - Played major role in retaking Toulon from British.
    - Promoted from major to brigadier general.
  - Plays leading role in supporting the directory against royalist uprising
    - Closing days of the national convention.
    - Death of Robespierre inspired
    - Awarded with command of army in Italy
  - Italian Campaign (1795-1797): Defeated Austrian forces, leading to the Treaty of Campo Formio.
    - Seen as award but not big one
    - Emerges as brilliant leader able to motivate the men, very mobile.
    - Able to concentrate superior force at decisive moments
    - Where succeeded set up sister republics in Italy.
      - Others were established in other location:
        
        Basel (1792).
        
        Mainz (1793).
        
        Netherlands (1795).
    - By late 1797 he forces Austria to sign treaty. (campo-fiormo)
  - Treaty of Campo Formio (1797): Ended the war with Austria, expanding French influence in Italy and beyond.
    - Breaks up the coalition of European powers against France.
    - Austria forced to recognize French sister republics.
    - Napoleon took personal lead in redrawing the map of Europe.
    - Did this all on his own.
      - Used his decisive victories to force peace treaties.

The Rise of Napoleon (1797-1799)

Egyptian Campaign (1798-1799)
Problems at Home
- Resumption of War
- Economic Crisis: Inflation
Coup d’Etat (1799)
- Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès & Napoleon Bonaparte

Egyptian Campaign (1798-1799): Napoleon’s attempt to disrupt British trade routes and establish French influence in the Middle East.
- Initially successful, but ultimately failed due to British naval superiority and local resistance.
Problems at Home:
- Resumption of war with European powers strained resources.
- Economic crisis worsened, leading to inflation and public discontent.
Coup d’Etat (1799): Napoleon, with the support of Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès, overthrew the Directory, establishing the Consulate and marking the beginning.
- Led by Sieyès, but needed a lightning rod to support it.
- Chose Napoleon because he was a popular military hero.

Napoleon & the Consulate (1799-1804)

Three legislatures, three consuls
- Napoleon = First Consul
War with another Coalition
- Battle of Marengo (1800) in Italy
- Peace of Amiens (1801)
Napoleonic Law Code
Welcomes back the Church and the Nobles

Three legislatures, three consuls: Napoleon becomes First Consul, effectively holding the most power.
War with another Coalition: Napoleon continues to face opposition from European powers.
- Battle of Marengo (1800): Napoleon’s decisive victory in Italy, solidifying his reputation as a military leader.
  - Decisive battle in Italian campaign
  - Began poorly for Fr.
  - Made fundamental blunder in starting it, just split his army right before.
  - Sent letter to bring back other people
  - Soldiers fought for hours
  - Guns got so hot they had to pee on them to cool them down.
  - Then the second half of the army returned to the battle.
  - The fresh division was placed in front and rout the Austrians.
  - By June 16, the Austrians sign an armistice.
  - Decisive battle leading to political change.
  - Returns to Paris heroically
- Peace of Amiens (1801): Temporary peace with Britain, allowing France to consolidate power.
  - General peace that lasted little over 2 yrs
  - Ends coalition
  - Even GB signs it.
  - Only time GB and FR aren’t in conflict.
Napoleonic Law Code
- Codifies laws, emphasizing equality before the law, property rights, and secular authority.
- Influences legal systems in many countries.
- Restricted women’s rights, but also abolished feudal privileges and promoted meritocracy.
- Women curtailed under the paterfamilias.
  - Reflects Napoleon’s obsession with Ancient Rome.

Emperor Napoleon (r. 1804-1815)

Napoleon crowns himself

Napoleonic Successes

The Peninsular War (1808-1814)

Great Britain and Russia

Painting of Emperor Napoleon in full regalia

Napoleon crowns himself: In a symbolic act, Napoleon crowned himself Emperor in 1804, emphasizing his authority and independence from the Church.
Napoleonic Successes: Napoleon’s military campaigns expanded French influence across Europe.
- Third Coalition (BG, Austria, Prussia)
  - Marches army into germany outside of vienna
  - The Grande Armee
  - Not just FR soldiers
  - Austerlitz
    - Austrian, Russian coalition (battle of 3 emperors, all 3 emperors were on field)
    - Huge victory.
    - HRE destroyed
    - Became empire of Austria.
Napoleon and Europe
- Rewriting the map
- Changed borders
  - Created Duchy of Warsaw
  - Confederation of the Rhine
  - Spain became Fr. Dependency
  - Made Prussia smaller
  - Destroyed HRE
    - It became Austrian empire.
- Redrawing of Europe was not quite
  - Instituted his law code.
- Economic warfare (continental blockade)
  - Decides he needs to bankrupt GB
  - Tries to keep GB off continent in trade
  - Tries to enforce a no trade pact with GB among many of the Europe countries
  - Destroys economies across Europe
The Peninsular War (1808-1814): A protracted conflict in Spain and Portugal, where guerrilla warfare and British support hindered French control.
- Tried to take greater control over Spain
- Created popular uprising against Napoleon.
- GB sends small expeditionary force (led by Wellington) to Portugal.
- Spain was wide open countryside
  - Didn’t have enough troops to control country
  - Spain decided to fight a little war or Guerilla war
    - Began fighting insurgencies
    - Ambushes.
- Napoleon had to keep 300,000 men in Spain at all times.
- By 1810 he has war he can’t win.
- But can’t pull out b/c it exposes one side of continent.
Great Britain and Russia:
- Russia refuses to comply with the Continental System, leading to tensions and eventual conflict with France.
- Trades with GB.

French Invasion of Russia (1812)

Napoleon’s Grand Army (600,000)

Russian Scorched-Earth Policy

Battle of Borodino (Sept. 1812)

Napoleon’s Retreat (60-70,000 return)

Map of Napoleon’s invasion of Russia in 1812

Napoleon tries to do what he always did
- Quick attack, decisive victory, new treaty
- 600,000 man army (included fr. And German soldiers)
  - Largest invasion force since Rome
- Russians withdraw and burn all in his path
- Fr. Army without supplies during summer (they get rid of wool overcoats).
  - Loose thousands of men a day.
- Battle of Borodino (1812)
  - Fr. Wins but does nothing
- Enters Moscow
  - It was burned
- Expected to meet with Czar of Russia.
- By late October Napoleon is forced to retreat and winter hits.
  - Order broke down in the army.
  - By end of year Napoleon had to return to Paris to prevent coup.
  - Army barely makes it out of Russia (60,000 to 70,000)
    - 90% casualty rate. (cold, disease, Cossacks)

France Loses

Wars of German Liberation (1813)
Battle for France
- Napoleon Surrenders (1814)
- Exiled to Elba

Louis XVIII (r. 1814-1824)
Hundred Days
- Battle of Waterloo (1815): not just Napoleon vs Wellington
- Napoleon vs Anglo-German-Dutch Army

The wars of german liberation 1813
- Prussia begins to take lead in protecting Germany from foreigners.
- Prussia and Austria rise up against napoleon.
Battle for France 1814
- Napoleon forced to abdicate the throne
Napoleon’s first abdication (elba)
- Napoleon sent to elba
- Allowed to keep the title of empire
- Louis XVI’s brother brought back to be king of France as Louis XVIII.
  - Louis XVII was the son of Louis XVI and became king of France in eyes of royalists when his father died in 1793.
  - Louis XVII died in prison in 1795.
The Hundred Days
- Spring 1815 he escapes island of elba and shows up in S. FR.
- Fr. King sent out cavalry to stop napoleon
- The general returns with Napoleon on his side.
- Napoleon’s aim was to push into Belgium and defeat the enemies.
- Major foe was the Prussian army and Anglo-German-dutch army
- Defeats Prussian army
Waterloo
- Faced Anglo-German-Dutch army
- Epic battle.
- Wellington in charge of them.
- Napoleon pushes army forward again and again.
  - The Coalition army took the brunt.
  - Then they are rescued by Prussian army.
- Napoleon now fighting both armies.
  - Prussians come in and force Fr. Off the battlefield.
- Napoleon forced to abdicate again
  - He hoped for exile in US.
  - GB decides to exile him to St. Helena.
    - Spends the rest of his life.

Impact of French Revolution: The Birth of Modernity

Congress of Vienna (1814-1815)

Politics and Liberalism

Napoleonic Legal Code

Nationalism

Congress of Vienna (1814-1815): A conference of European powers to restore order and balance of power after the Napoleonic Wars.
- Redrew the map of Europe.
- Restored monarchies and established a framework for international diplomacy.
- Strong centralized empires replaced the fragmented states of the early modern period.
- German confederation:
  - 39 states
  - Austria and Prussia were the two dominant powers.
  - Replaced hundreds of states with 39.
Politics and Liberalism: The French Revolution and Napoleonic era inspired liberal movements across Europe, advocating for constitutional government, civil liberties, and political reform.
Napoleonic Legal Code: The Napoleonic Code influenced legal systems worldwide, promoting principles of equality before the law, property rights, and secular authority.
Nationalism: The rise of nationalism was fueled by the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars