Napoleon and the French Revolution

The French Revolution

The Directory (1795-1799)

• New Government
  • Property-Based Elections
  • Legislature chose 5 Directors
    • Share executive power

• Compulsory Military Service
• Resolves economic crisis
  • By 1799, financial system stabilized
• Suppressed popular violence: only high revolution

• After death of Maximilian Robespierre, French Revolution enters a new phase.
• Unicameral government: the Directory (1795-99)
  • End universal male suffrage.
  • Reaction against he radicalism of the previous year.
• Institutes compulsory military service.
  • End of all that democracy in the military.
• Resolves the economic crisis.
  • Declares partial bankruptcy.
  • By 1799, the financial system stabilized.
• Militarization of French society:
  • General conscription every year.
    • National military service became regular for men.
    • Helps tie men to the nation.
    • Creates a national army.
    • Directory army becomes very successful and will go from defensive to offensive.
      • Will Create sister republics in its image.
    • Not very popular but will rely on army to maintain order.

Enter Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821)

Corsican

Toulon Campaign (Aug. - Dec. 1793)

Italian Campaign (1795-1797)

Treaty of Campo Formio (1797)

Painting of Napoleon Bonapart during the Italian Campaign

• Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821)
  • Born in Corsica, a French territory, to a minor noble family.
  • Military genius, especially in artillery.
  • Rose to prominence during the French Revolution.
  • Key campaigns:
    • Toulon Campaign (1793): Successfully recaptured Toulon from Royalists and British forces.
      • 1793 he was in charge of artillery in Toulon
      • Played major role in retaking Toulon from British.
      • Promoted from major to brigadier general.
    • Plays leading role in supporting the directory against royalist uprising
      • Closing days of the national convention.
      • Death of Robespierre inspired
      • Awarded with command of army in Italy
    • Italian Campaign (1795-1797): Defeated Austrian forces, leading to the Treaty of Campo Formio.
      • Seen as award but not big one
      • Emerges as brilliant leader able to motivate the men, very mobile.
      • Able to concentrate superior force at decisive moments
      • Where succeeded set up sister republics in Italy.
        • Others were established in other location:
          • Basel (1792).
          • Mainz (1793).
          • Netherlands (1795).
      • By late 1797 he forces Austria to sign treaty. (campo-fiormo)
    • Treaty of Campo Formio (1797): Ended the war with Austria, expanding French influence in Italy and beyond.
      • Breaks up the coalition of European powers against France.
      • Austria forced to recognize French sister republics.
      • Napoleon took personal lead in redrawing the map of Europe.
      • Did this all on his own.
        • Used his decisive victories to force peace treaties.

The Rise of Napoleon (1797-1799)

• Egyptian Campaign (1798-1799)
• Problems at Home
  • Resumption of War
  • Economic Crisis: Inflation
• Coup d’Etat (1799)
  • Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès & Napoleon Bonaparte

• Egyptian Campaign (1798-1799): Napoleon’s attempt to disrupt British trade routes and establish French influence in the Middle East.
  • Initially successful, but ultimately failed due to British naval superiority and local resistance.
• Problems at Home:
  • Resumption of war with European powers strained resources.
  • Economic crisis worsened, leading to inflation and public discontent.
• Coup d’Etat (1799): Napoleon, with the support of Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès, overthrew the Directory, establishing the Consulate and marking the beginning.
  • Led by Sieyès, but needed a lightning rod to support it.
  • Chose Napoleon because he was a popular military hero.

Napoleon & the Consulate (1799-1804)

• Three legislatures, three consuls
  • Napoleon = First Consul
• War with another Coalition
  • Battle of Marengo (1800) in Italy
  • Peace of Amiens (1801)
• Napoleonic Law Code
• Welcomes back the Church and the Nobles

• Three legislatures, three consuls: Napoleon becomes First Consul, effectively holding the most power.
• War with another Coalition: Napoleon continues to face opposition from European powers.
  • Battle of Marengo (1800): Napoleon’s decisive victory in Italy, solidifying his reputation as a military leader.
    • Decisive battle in Italian campaign
    • Began poorly for Fr. 
    • Made fundamental blunder in starting it, just split his army right before.
    • Sent letter to bring back other people
    • Soldiers fought for hours
    • Guns got so hot they had to pee on them to cool them down.
    • Then the second half of the army returned to the battle.
    • The fresh division was placed in front and rout the Austrians.
    • By June 16, the Austrians sign an armistice.
    • Decisive battle leading to political change.
    • Returns to Paris heroically
  • Peace of Amiens (1801): Temporary peace with Britain, allowing France to consolidate power.
    • General peace that lasted little over 2 yrs
    • Ends coalition
    • Even GB signs it.
    • Only time GB and FR aren’t in conflict.
• Napoleonic Law Code
  • Codifies laws, emphasizing equality before the law, property rights, and secular authority.
  • Influences legal systems in many countries.
  • Restricted women’s rights, but also abolished feudal privileges and promoted meritocracy.
  • Women curtailed under the paterfamilias.
    • Reflects Napoleon’s obsession with Ancient Rome.

Emperor Napoleon (r. 1804-1815)

Napoleon crowns himself

Napoleonic Successes

The Peninsular War (1808-1814)

Great Britain and Russia

Painting of Emperor Napoleon in full regalia

Map of Napoleonic Europe in 1812

• Napoleon crowns himself: In a symbolic act, Napoleon crowned himself Emperor in 1804, emphasizing his authority and independence from the Church.
• Napoleonic Successes: Napoleon’s military campaigns expanded French influence across Europe.
  • Third Coalition (BG, Austria, Prussia)
    • Marches army into germany outside of vienna
    • The Grande Armee
    • Not just FR soldiers
    • Austerlitz
      • Austrian, Russian coalition (battle of 3 emperors, all 3 emperors were on field)
      • Huge victory.
      • HRE destroyed
      • Became empire of Austria.
• Napoleon and Europe
  • Rewriting the map
  • Changed borders
    • Created Duchy of Warsaw
    • Confederation of the Rhine
    • Spain became Fr. Dependency
    • Made Prussia smaller
    • Destroyed HRE
      • It became Austrian empire.
  • Redrawing of Europe was not quite
    • Instituted his law code.
  • Economic warfare (continental blockade)
    • Decides he needs to bankrupt GB
    • Tries to keep GB off continent in trade
    • Tries to enforce a no trade pact with GB among many of the Europe countries
      
    • Destroys economies across Europe
• The Peninsular War (1808-1814): A protracted conflict in Spain and Portugal, where guerrilla warfare and British support hindered French control.
  • Tried to take greater control over Spain
  • Created popular uprising against Napoleon.
  • GB sends small expeditionary force (led by Wellington) to Portugal.
  • Spain was wide open countryside
    • Didn’t have enough troops to control country
    • Spain decided to fight a little war or Guerilla war
      • Began fighting insurgencies
      • Ambushes.
  • Napoleon had to keep 300,000 men in Spain at all times.
  • By 1810 he has war he can’t win.
  • But can’t pull out b/c it exposes one side of continent.
• Great Britain and Russia:
  • Russia refuses to comply with the Continental System, leading to tensions and eventual conflict with France.
  • Trades with GB.

French Invasion of Russia (1812)

Napoleon’s Grand Army (600,000)

Russian Scorched-Earth Policy

Battle of Borodino (Sept. 1812)

Napoleon’s Retreat (60-70,000 return)

Map of Napoleon’s invasion of Russia in 1812

• Napoleon tries to do what he always did
  • Quick attack, decisive victory, new treaty
  • 600,000 man army (included fr. And German soldiers)
    • Largest invasion force since Rome
  • Russians withdraw and burn all in his path
  • Fr. Army without supplies during summer (they get rid of wool overcoats).
    • Loose thousands of men a day.
  • Battle of Borodino (1812)
    • Fr. Wins but does nothing
  • Enters Moscow
    • It was burned
  • Expected to meet with Czar of Russia.
  • By late October Napoleon is forced to retreat and winter hits.
    • Order broke down in the army.
    • By end of year Napoleon had to return to Paris to prevent coup.
    • Army barely makes it out of Russia (60,000 to 70,000)
      • 90% casualty rate. (cold, disease, Cossacks)

France Loses

• Wars of German Liberation (1813)
• Battle for France
  • Napoleon Surrenders (1814)
  • Exiled to Elba

• Louis XVIII (r. 1814-1824)
• Hundred Days
  • Battle of Waterloo (1815): not just Napoleon vs Wellington
  • Napoleon vs Anglo-German-Dutch Army

• The wars of german liberation 1813
  • Prussia begins to take lead in protecting Germany from foreigners.
  • Prussia and Austria rise up against napoleon.
• Battle for France 1814
  • Napoleon forced to abdicate the throne
• Napoleon’s first abdication (elba)
  • Napoleon sent to elba
  • Allowed to keep the title of empire
  • Louis XVI’s brother brought back to be king of France as Louis XVIII.
    • Louis XVII was the son of Louis XVI and became king of France in eyes of royalists when his father died in 1793.
    • Louis XVII died in prison in 1795.
• The Hundred Days
  • Spring 1815 he escapes island of elba and shows up in S. FR.
  • Fr. King sent out cavalry to stop napoleon
  • The general returns with Napoleon on his side.
  • Napoleon’s aim was to push into Belgium and defeat the enemies.
  • Major foe was the Prussian army and Anglo-German-dutch army
  • Defeats Prussian army
• Waterloo
  • Faced Anglo-German-Dutch army
  • Epic battle.
  • Wellington in charge of them.
  • Napoleon pushes army forward again and again.
    • The Coalition army took the brunt.
    • Then they are rescued by Prussian army.
  • Napoleon now fighting both armies.
    • Prussians come in and force Fr. Off the battlefield.
  • Napoleon forced to abdicate again
    • He hoped for exile in US.
    • GB decides to exile him to St. Helena.
      • Spends the rest of his life.

Impact of French Revolution: The Birth of Modernity

Congress of Vienna (1814-1815)

Politics and Liberalism

Napoleonic Legal Code

Nationalism

Map of European borders in 1815

• Congress of Vienna (1814-1815): A conference of European powers to restore order and balance of power after the Napoleonic Wars.
  • Redrew the map of Europe.
  • Restored monarchies and established a framework for international diplomacy.
  • Strong centralized empires replaced the fragmented states of the early modern period.
  • German confederation:
    • 39 states
    • Austria and Prussia were the two dominant powers.
    • Replaced hundreds of states with 39.
• Politics and Liberalism: The French Revolution and Napoleonic era inspired liberal movements across Europe, advocating for constitutional government, civil liberties, and political reform.
• Napoleonic Legal Code: The Napoleonic Code influenced legal systems worldwide, promoting principles of equality before the law, property rights, and secular authority.
• Nationalism: The rise of nationalism was fueled by the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars