Week 2: Catholicism before the Reformation

Europe’s Reformations

The Reformation

• A schism of ideas: means of acquiring salvation.
  • Had tremendous implications: religious, political, social
• Ideas centered around the continuation or renewal of the early church.
• Everyone continued to believe in God’s Providence.

• A history of ideas.
  • The means by which salvation is achieved.
  • By works or by grace?
• Implications:
  • Religious: Obvious what is the means by which one attains salvation? Is it through the church or through faith alone, works or grace?
  • Political: What is the role of the state? All believed in providence, and it was the role of the state to keep God’s providence.
  • Social: Who has access to scripture? Who interprets it? How does it get interpreted?

A Brief History of Christianity

• Jesus of Nazareth (c. 0 - c. 30 CE)
• By 100 fully separated form Judaism.
• Great Diversity of Beliefs and Practices.
  • Example: Arianism vs Nicene Christianity.
• Councils to define orthodoxy.
  • Nicaea (325)
  • Chalcedon (451)
• Main Point: Christianity was not monolithic in the early centuries.

• Arianism was the belief that Jesus was not fully divine, but a created being. Instead, he was the first and greatest of God’s creations. This view was popular among some early Christian communities, particularly in the Eastern Roman Empire.
• Nicene Christianity affirmed the full divinity of Jesus.
• Nicea made the Nicene christianity the Orthodox belief and Arians went west.
• But Arianism would rise again under Emperors Constantius II (337-361) and Valens (364-378).
• Only when Theodosius I made Nicene Christianity the state religion in 380 did Arianism finally die out in the East.
• But more problems developed later, such as the Monophysite controversy, which led to the Council of Chalcedon in 451.
  • Monophysitism held that Christ had only one nature, either divine or a synthesis of divine and human. Chalcedon affirmed that Christ had two natures, fully divine and fully human, united in one person.

Salvation Theology

• Augustine of Hippo (354-430)
  • Original Sin
  • Predestination
  • grace
• The Church and the sacraments
  • Baptism, Eucharist, etc.
  • Augustine’s teachings.
• Purgatory (11th-13th centuries)
  • Development of the doctrine
  • Role in salvation economy

• Augustine and salvation theology:
  • Original Sin: Humanity inherited a sinful nature from Adam and Eve’s disobedience in the Garden of Eden. This sinfulness separates humans from God and makes them incapable of achieving salvation on their own.
  • Predestination: God, in his omniscience and sovereignty, has already chosen who will be saved (the elect) and who will be damned. This choice is not based on any foreseen merit or action on the part of individuals, but solely on God’s will and grace.
  • Grace: Salvation is entirely dependent on God’s grace, which is a free and unmerited gift. Humans cannot earn salvation through their own efforts or good works; it is only through God’s grace that they can be saved.
• Augustine and the Sacraments:
  • He viewed the sacraments as essential means of grace, instituted by Christ to convey that grace to believers.
  • He emphasized the importance of the sacraments being administered by the Church, as the Church is the guardian of the sacraments and the mediator of God’s grace.
• Augustine and the Church:
  • The sacraments were “visible sigs[s] that connect us to the myster of our saving God.”, But they had to be administered by the true church (the Catholic Churhc).
  • He preached during the Donatist controversy in North Africa.
    • Donatists believed that the validity of the sacraments depended on the moral character of the clergy administering them. Augustine argued that the sacraments were valid regardless of the personal holiness of the clergy, as long as they were administered according to the correct form and intention.
    • Augustine argued that the Church was a mixed body of saints and sinners, and that the sacraments were effective because of God’s grace, not because of the worthiness of the minister.
    • But also that sacraments from schismatics availed nothing until the member joined the Catholic Chruch through which grace was dispensed.
      • Baptism outside the church counts only once the member joins the Catholic Church. Otherwise, it led to condemnation.
    • He argued that “the Eucharist is the summit of sacramental theology because it is so obviously and closely connected to the Incarnate Christ himself and because it is a visible sign that connects us to the mystery of salvation in Christ which is fulfilled in love.”
• Purgatory:
  • Developed by the 12/13th centuries.
  • A place where souls are purified
  • Developed from references in scripture to purification after death (1 Cor 3:11-15, Mt 12:32, 2 Mc 12:46) and the practices of praying for the dead for their salvation that was supported in

The Medieval Church

• The 12th century Revolution.
  • Organized, More monastic-like, centralized.
• The Papacy
• Hierarchy of Clergy.
• Bishops & Dioceses.
• Parish Priests.
• Monastic Orders.

• The 12th century Revolution:
  • The church became more organized and centralized, with a clearer hierarchy and structure.
  • The papacy became more powerful and influential, asserting its authority over secular rulers.
• Hierarchy of Clergy:
  • The pope was at the top of the hierarchy, followed by cardinals, archbishops, bishops, and parish priests.
• Bishops & Dioceses:
  • Bishops were responsible for overseeing dioceses, which were geographical areas containing multiple Parish Priests.
• Parish Priests:
  • Parish priests were responsible for the spiritual care of their local communities, administering sacraments
  • They were often the primary point of contact between the church and the laity.
• Monastic Orders:
  • Monastic orders, such as the Benedictines, Cistercians, and Franciscans, played a significant role in the church.
  • They were centers of learning, Challenging the authority of the Church.
  • They provided spiritual guidance and support to the laity.
  • They were involved in charitable works and missionary activities.

Purgatory & the Salvation Economy.

• Developed in the 12th-13th centuries.
• Prayers for the dead.
• The Salvation Economy.
  • North-South Split
• Indulgences.

• Focus on Purgatory and prayers for the dead.
• Basic idea of praying not only for the dead but also for the souls of the living to reduce their time in purgatory.
• Based on Prayers for the dead.
  • 2 Maccabees 12:46: “It is therefore a holy and wholesome thought to pray for the dead, that they may be loosed from sins.”
  • 1 Corinthians 3:11-15: Paul speaks of a person’s work being tested by fire after death, suggesting a process of purification.
  • Matthew 12:32: Jesus mentions that blasphemy against the Holy Spirit will not be forgiven, either in this age or in the age to come, implying the possibility of forgiveness after death.
• The Salvation Economy:
  • The Church acted as the mediator of grace through the sacraments and prayers.
  • People could reduce their time in purgatory through good works, indulgences.
  • Led to people praying for one another for everything:
    • Signs to prey fro the maintainer of the bridge.
    • Prayers to those who put coins in the fountain to help pay for the towns tax bill.
    • Gave a coin to a beggar, the beggar preyed for the giver’s soul.
  • North-South Split:
    • The North was much more focused on the salvation economy.
  • Indulgences were granted by the Church as a way to reduce the temporal punishment for sins, either for oneself or for souls in purgatory.
• Main Takeaway:
  • People were very concerned for their salvation and afterlife and went to great length to support it within the existing theological framework.

Modern Devotion

• The Imitation of Christ (c. 1418) by Thomas à Kempis.
• Emphasis on personal piety and devotion.
• Lay religious movements.
  • The Brethren of the Common Life.

• The Imitation of Christ:
  • A devotional book that emphasizes the importance of personal piety and devotion to Christ.
  • Encourages readers to focus on the inner spiritual life rather than external religious rituals.
• Lay religious movements:
  • The Brethren of the Common Life was a lay religious movement that emphasized personal piety and devotion.
  • Founded by Gerard Groote in the late 14th century in the Netherlands.
  • Members lived in communal houses, dedicated to prayer, study, and charitable works.
  • They promoted education and the copying of religious texts, contributing to the spread of religious knowledge and devotion among laypeople.
• Main Takeaway:
  • A shift towards personal piety and devotion outside of the formal structures of the church.

Challenges to the church

• John Wycliffe (c. 1320–1384) and the Lollards
• Jan Hus (c. 1372–1415) and the Hussites
• Common Themes
  • Criticisms of church corruption
  • Demand for scripture in vernacular languages
  • Did not challenge core doctrines of the church.

• Wycliffe: English theologian, early critic of the church, translated the Bible into English.
• Hus: Bohemian reformer, influenced by Wycliffe, burned at the stake for heresy.
• Criticisms:
  • Church corruption
  • Sale of indulgences
  • Clerical immorality
• Demand for scripture in vernacular languages
• Did not criticize the core doctrines of the church.
  • Purgatory
  • Salvation through works.

The Renaissance Papacy

• The Avignon Papacy (1309-1377)
  • Papal residence in Avignon, France.
  • Perceived as under French influence.
• The Great Schism (1378-1417)
  • Multiple claimants to the papacy.
  • Undermined papal authority.
• Popes acted as securlar rulers.

• Started with Pope Clement V moving the papal court to Avignon in 1309.
• Avignon Papacy: The papacy was seen as being under the influence of the French crown, leading to perceptions of corruption and a lack of spiritual authority.
• The Great Schism: Began in 1378 when two rival popes were elected, one in Rome and one in Avignon. This schism lasted until 1417 and severely undermined the authority of the papacy.
• At one point, a third pope was elected in Pisa in 1409.
• During this period, popes acted more like secular rulers than spiritual leaders, engaging in political machinations and wars.
• It also appeared as if foreign powers were manipulating the papacy for their own ends.
• Pope Alexander VI (1492-1503) is often cited as an example of the corruption of the Renaissance papacy, known for his nepotism and political intrigue.
  • He was a member of the Borgia family, which was notorious for its corruption and moral decadence.
  • He used his position to advance the interests of his family, appointing relatives to high church offices and engaging in political alliances that benefited the Borgias.

Humanism

• Revival of classical learning and texts.
• Dark Ages
• Petrarch (1304–1374)
  • “Father of Humanism”
• Ad fontes: “to the sources”
  • Emphasis on returning to original texts.

• Humanist learning:
  • Revival of classical learning and texts from ancient Greece and Rome.
  • Reaction against the perceived intellectual stagnation of the “Dark Ages.”
  • emphasized the Classical study:
    • grammar
    • rhetoric
    • poetry
    • history
    • moral philosophy
• Petrarch:
  • Often called the “Father of Humanism.”
  • Emphasized the study of classical literature, history, and philosophy.
• Ad fontes:
  • A humanist motto meaning “to the sources.”
  • Emphasized the importance of returning to original texts, both classical and biblical, to gain a clearer understanding of their meanings.

Christian Humanism

• Donation of Constantine
  • Exposed as a forgery by Lorenzo Valla (1407–1457).
• Erasmus of Rotterdam (c. 1466–1536)
  • Applied humanist methods to religious texts.
  • Translated and annotated the New Testament.
    • Johannine comma.
• Challenging the authority of the Church.

• Donation of Constantine:
  • A document purportedly issued by Emperor Constantine the Great, granting the Pope temporal authority over Rome and the western part of the Roman Empire.
  • Exposed as a forgery by Lorenzo Valla, an Italian humanist, who used philological analysis to demonstrate that the language and style of the document were inconsistent with the time it was supposedly written.
• Erasmus of Rotterdam:
  • A Dutch humanist and theologian who applied humanist methods to the study of Religious texts.
  • He produced a critical edition of the New Testament in Greek, along with a Latin translation and extensive annotations.
  • One of his notable contributions was his analysis of the Johannine comma (1 John 5:7-8), which he argued was a later addition to the text
  • His work challenged the authority of the Church by emphasizing the importance of returning to the original texts and questioning traditional interpretations.